Thailand, Globalization, and Gender: Thai tourism policies and the global outsourcing of care and reproductive work
Keywords:
globalization, gender, tourism policy, care, intimacyAbstract
This article offers a critical discussion of Thai tourism policies with a particular reference to the feminist approach to care and reproductive work. Documentary research and literature review illustrate how the issues of globalization and gender have been embedded in both national policy making and social relations between different groups, including between Thai state and its citizen. Under the logics of neoliberalism, Thai state has transformed itself as an entrepreneurial state, who commoditizes care and intimacy for long-stay, and medical and wellness tourism. The development of Thailand as a destination for international retirement migration is one of the national strategies to transform the country’s image as a destination for sex tourism to a hub for care services. However, such policies have in practice reproduced asymmetrical power relations between genders, classes, ethnic groups, and nation states; and at the same time hindered other forms of social relations between the locals and Western migrants in Thailand.
References
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เอกสารภาษาอังกฤษ
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Asis, Maruja Milagros B., Shirlena Huang and Brenda S. A. Yeoh. 2004 “When the Light of the Home is Abroad: Unskilled female migration and the Filipino family.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 25(2): 198-215.
Benson, Michaela and Karen O’Reilly. 2009. “Migration and the Search for a Better Way of Life: A critical exploration of lifestyle migration.” The Sociological Review 57(4): 608-25.
Boris, Eileen and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas. 2010. “Introduction.” In Intimate Labors: Cultures, technologies, and the politics of care, edited by Eileen Boris and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, 1-12. California: Stanford University Press.
Chuenglertsiri, Pattraporn and Manasigan Kanchanachitra. 2016. “‘Thai Way’ or ‘My Way’: A qualitative study of integration and well-being among long-term European migrants in Thailand.” In Population and Society 2016: Thailand in the era of transnational migration, edited by Kerry Richter, Lylla Winzer and Marc Voelker, 71-89. Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom.
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Constable, Nicole. 2007. Maid to Order in Hong Kong: Stories of migrant workers. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Del Casino, Vincent J. Jr. and Stephen P. Hanna. 2000. “Representations and Identities in Tourism Map Spaces.” Progress in Human Geography 24(1): 23-46.
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Mountz, Alison and Jennifer Hyndman. 2006. “Feminist Approach to the Global Intimate.” Women’s Studies Quarterly 34(1/2): 446-463.
Nagar, Richa, Victoria Lawson, Linda McDowell and Susan Hanson. 2002. “Locating Globalization: Feminist (re)reading of the subjects and spaces of globalization.” Economic Geography 78(3): 257-284.
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Pande, Amrita. 2010. “Commercial Surrogacy in India: Manufacturing a perfect
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Parreñas, Rhacel Salazar. 2005. Children of Global Migration: Transnational families and gendered woes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Pratt, Geraldine. 1999. “From Registered Nurse to Registered Nanny: Discursive geography of Filipina domestic workers in Vancouver, B.C.” Economic Geography 7(3): 215-236.
Pratt, Geraldine, and Brenda Yeoh. 2003. “Transnational (Counter) Topographies.” Gender, Place and Culture 10(2): 159-166.
Reynolds, Craig J. 2002. “Thai Identity in the Age of Globalization.” In National Identity and Its Defenders: Thailand today, edited by Craig J. Reynolds, 308-333. Chiang Mai: Silk Worm Books.
Rodriguez, Robyn Magalit. 2010. Migrants for Export: How the Philippine state brokers labor to the world. Minneapolis & London: University of Minnesota Press.
Sunanta, Sirijit. 2005. “The Globalization of Thai Cuisine.” Paper presented at the Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies Conference, York University, Toronto, October 14-16.
Sunanta, Sirijit and Leonora Angeles. 2013. “From Rural Life to Transnational Wife: Agrarian transition, gender mobility, and intimate globalization in transnational marriages in northeast Thailand.” Gender, Place and Culture 20(6): 699-717.
Thompson, Eric C., Pattana Kitiarsa and Suriya Smutkupt. 2016. “From Sex Tourist to Son-in-law: Emergent masculinities and transient subjectivities of farang men in Thailand.” Current Anthropology 57(1): 53-71.
Toyota, Mika and Biao Xiang. 2012. “The Emerging Transitional ‘Retirement Industry’ in Southeast Asia.” International Journal for Sociology and Social Policy 32(11/12): 708-719.
Truong, Thanh-Dam. 1983. “The Dynamics of Sex Tourism: The case of Southeast Asia.” Development and Change 14(4): 533-553.
Vora, Kalindi. 2010. “The Transmission of Care: Affective economies and Indian call centers.” In Intimate Labors: Cultures, technologies, and politics of care, edited by Eileen Boris and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, 33-62. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Whittaker, Andrea. 2009. “Global Technologies and Transnational Reproduction in Thailand.” Asian Studies Review 33: 319-332.
เอกสารออนไลน์
กรมสนับสนุนการบริการสุขภาพ กระทรวงสาธารณสุข. 2559. ยุทธศาสตร์การพัฒนาประเทศไทยให้เป็นศูนย์กลางสุขภาพนานาชาติ (Medical Hub) (พ.ศ. 2560-2569). กรุงเทพฯ: กรมสนับสนุนการบริการสุขภาพ กระทรวงสาธารณสุข. สืบค้นวันที่ 5 กุมภาพันธ์ 2561. https://bit.ly/2LeV1fk.
ขวัญชนก ใจซื่อกุล. 2560. “‘เพื่อชีวิตที่ดีกว่า’: แรงจูงใจทางเศรษฐกิจกับการย้ายถิ่นของชาวเยอรมันในพัทยา.” วารสารสังคมศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยวลัยลักษณ์ 10(2): 41-80.
นฤมล ผุยมูลตรี. 2554. “ความพึงพอใจในการทำงานของพนักงานสปาในกรุงเทพมหานคร.” วิทยานิพนธ์ศิลปศาสตร์มหาบัณฑิต (วัฒนธรรมศึกษา), มหาวิทยาลัยมหิดล.
เอกสารภาษาอังกฤษ
Apivantanaporn, Thanan and John Walsh. 2012. “Driving Force for Service Innovation through Creating Unique Value Proposition: Capitalizing on cultural identity in the spa industry of Chiangmai, Thailand.” Information Management and Business Review 4(5): 242-251.
Appadurai, Arjun. 1996. Modernity at Large: Cultural dimensions of modernity. Minneapolis: University of Minesota.
Asis, Maruja Milagros B., Shirlena Huang and Brenda S. A. Yeoh. 2004 “When the Light of the Home is Abroad: Unskilled female migration and the Filipino family.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 25(2): 198-215.
Benson, Michaela and Karen O’Reilly. 2009. “Migration and the Search for a Better Way of Life: A critical exploration of lifestyle migration.” The Sociological Review 57(4): 608-25.
Boris, Eileen and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas. 2010. “Introduction.” In Intimate Labors: Cultures, technologies, and the politics of care, edited by Eileen Boris and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, 1-12. California: Stanford University Press.
Chuenglertsiri, Pattraporn and Manasigan Kanchanachitra. 2016. “‘Thai Way’ or ‘My Way’: A qualitative study of integration and well-being among long-term European migrants in Thailand.” In Population and Society 2016: Thailand in the era of transnational migration, edited by Kerry Richter, Lylla Winzer and Marc Voelker, 71-89. Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom.
Choy, Catherine Ceniza. 2003. Empire of Care: Nursing and migration in Filipino American history. Durham and London: Duke University Press.
Constable, Nicole. 2007. Maid to Order in Hong Kong: Stories of migrant workers. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press.
Del Casino, Vincent J. Jr. and Stephen P. Hanna. 2000. “Representations and Identities in Tourism Map Spaces.” Progress in Human Geography 24(1): 23-46.
Gamburd, Michele Ruth. 2000. The Kitchen Spoon’s Handle: Transnationalism and Sri Lanka’s migrant housemaids. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press.
Harvey, David. 2005. A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2003. The Commercialization of Intimate Life: Notes from home and work. Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.
Hochschild, Arlie Russell. 2013. The Outsourced Self: What happens when we pay others to live our lives for us. New York: Metropolitan Books.
Howard, Robert W. 2009. “The Migration of Westerners to Thailand: An unusual flow from developed to developing world.” International Migration 47(2): 193-225.
Husa, Karl, Christian Vielhaber, Julia Jostl, Krisztina Veress and Birgit Wieser. 2014. “Searching for Paradise?: International retirement migrants in Hua Hin and Cha-am, Thailand.” In Southeast Asian Mobility Transitions: Issues and trends in migration and tourism, edited by Karl Husa, Alexander Trupp and Helmut Wohlschlägl, 137-167. Vienna: Department of Geography and Regional Research, University of Vienna.
Jaisuekun, Kwanchanok. 2017. “German Migrants in Pattaya, Thailand: Lifestyle, motivations, and integration.” Master’s Thesis (Cultural Studies), Mahidol University.
Jaisuekun, Kwanchanok and Sirijit Sunanta. 2016. “Lifestyle Migration in Thailand:
A case studies of German migrants in Pattaya.” Thammasat Review 19(2):
89-103.
Kang, Miliann. 2010. The Managed Hand: Race, gender, and the body in beauty service work. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kogiso, Kohei. 2012. “Thai Massage and Health Tourism in Thailand: Tourism acculturation process of ‘Thai massage’ . ” International Journal of Sport and Health Science 10: 65-70.
Lafferty, Megan. 2016. “Migrating Masculinities, Shifting Subjectivities: The lives of Western men in northeast Thailand.” PhD diss. (Social and Political Sciences), University of Melbourne.
Mountz, Alison and Jennifer Hyndman. 2006. “Feminist Approach to the Global Intimate.” Women’s Studies Quarterly 34(1/2): 446-463.
Nagar, Richa, Victoria Lawson, Linda McDowell and Susan Hanson. 2002. “Locating Globalization: Feminist (re)reading of the subjects and spaces of globalization.” Economic Geography 78(3): 257-284.
Nuttavuthisit, Krittinee. 2006. “Branding Thailand: Correcting the negative image of sex tourism.” Place Branding and Public Diplomacy 3(1): 21-30.
Pande, Amrita. 2010. “Commercial Surrogacy in India: Manufacturing a perfect
mother-worker.” Signs 35(4): 969-992.
Parreñas, Rhacel Salazar. 2005. Children of Global Migration: Transnational families and gendered woes. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Pratt, Geraldine. 1999. “From Registered Nurse to Registered Nanny: Discursive geography of Filipina domestic workers in Vancouver, B.C.” Economic Geography 7(3): 215-236.
Pratt, Geraldine, and Brenda Yeoh. 2003. “Transnational (Counter) Topographies.” Gender, Place and Culture 10(2): 159-166.
Reynolds, Craig J. 2002. “Thai Identity in the Age of Globalization.” In National Identity and Its Defenders: Thailand today, edited by Craig J. Reynolds, 308-333. Chiang Mai: Silk Worm Books.
Rodriguez, Robyn Magalit. 2010. Migrants for Export: How the Philippine state brokers labor to the world. Minneapolis & London: University of Minnesota Press.
Sunanta, Sirijit. 2005. “The Globalization of Thai Cuisine.” Paper presented at the Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies Conference, York University, Toronto, October 14-16.
Sunanta, Sirijit and Leonora Angeles. 2013. “From Rural Life to Transnational Wife: Agrarian transition, gender mobility, and intimate globalization in transnational marriages in northeast Thailand.” Gender, Place and Culture 20(6): 699-717.
Thompson, Eric C., Pattana Kitiarsa and Suriya Smutkupt. 2016. “From Sex Tourist to Son-in-law: Emergent masculinities and transient subjectivities of farang men in Thailand.” Current Anthropology 57(1): 53-71.
Toyota, Mika and Biao Xiang. 2012. “The Emerging Transitional ‘Retirement Industry’ in Southeast Asia.” International Journal for Sociology and Social Policy 32(11/12): 708-719.
Truong, Thanh-Dam. 1983. “The Dynamics of Sex Tourism: The case of Southeast Asia.” Development and Change 14(4): 533-553.
Vora, Kalindi. 2010. “The Transmission of Care: Affective economies and Indian call centers.” In Intimate Labors: Cultures, technologies, and politics of care, edited by Eileen Boris and Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, 33-62. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Whittaker, Andrea. 2009. “Global Technologies and Transnational Reproduction in Thailand.” Asian Studies Review 33: 319-332.
เอกสารออนไลน์
กรมสนับสนุนการบริการสุขภาพ กระทรวงสาธารณสุข. 2559. ยุทธศาสตร์การพัฒนาประเทศไทยให้เป็นศูนย์กลางสุขภาพนานาชาติ (Medical Hub) (พ.ศ. 2560-2569). กรุงเทพฯ: กรมสนับสนุนการบริการสุขภาพ กระทรวงสาธารณสุข. สืบค้นวันที่ 5 กุมภาพันธ์ 2561. https://bit.ly/2LeV1fk.
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2018-08-28
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