Autonomous ships, port operations, and the challenges of African ports
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33175/mtr.2023.260194Keywords:
Autonomous, Seaports, Africa, Infrastructure, Piracy, ChallengesAbstract
The introduction of autonomous shipping (AS) into the maritime industry is bringing with it a great shift from conventional shipping to a digitalization mode. Expected benefits, which form the bases for conceiving and developing this innovation, include safety, security, and environmental protection. This innovation is not without some risks, such as non-navigation, cyber-piracy, and other issues which are always associated with new technology. This paper presents recent trends in shipping operations from the 18th century onwards, trends in autonomous system services, and the benefits and challenges of autonomous ships. The paper also navigates three (3) key potential challenges to Africa’s adoption of autonomous shipping in the event of its adoption for commercial shipping. These challenges are Africa’s trade level and trade facilitation, the state of infrastructural development, and piracy and maritime cyber-crimes in Africa. It is suggested that stakeholders in Africa’s maritime industry and government should fashion holistic strategies for trade facilitation, rapid development of key trade infrastructures through investment, and intergovernmental capacities towards curbing piracy activities in the region’s maritime routes.
Highlights
- The study explores the trend of technological innovation in the maritime and shipping industry
- Benefits and challenges of Autonomous shipping as the current innovation are explored
- Challenges of adopting this innovation by the African countries and ports are carefully explained
- Suggestions are made on what to be done by Africa to move in the direction of the world especially with port development and international trade participation
References
Abaei, M. M., Hekkenberg R., & Bahoo, T. A. (2021). A multinomial process tree for reliability assessment of machinery in autonomous ships. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 210, 107484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2021.107484
Agénor, P. R., & Moreno-Dodson, B. (2006). Public infrastructure and growth: New channels and policy implications. Banca d’Italia, Italia.
Aggarwal, R. (1999).Technology and globalization as mutual reinforcers in business: reorienting strategic thinking for the millennium. Management International Review,83-104.
Alawadhi, M., Almazrouie, J., Kamil, M., & Khalil, K. A. (2020). A systematic literature review of the factors influencing the adoption of autonomous driving. International Journal of System Assurance Engineering and Management, 11, 1065-1082. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13198-020-00961-4
Alcaide, J. I., & Llave, R. G. (2020). Critical infrastructures cybersecurity and the maritime sector. Transportation Research Procedia, 45, 547-554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2020.03.058
Arnsdorf, I. (2014). Rolls-Royce drone ships challenge $375 billion industry: Freight. Bloomberg Business Week.
AUC/OECD. (2019). Africa’s Development Dynamics 2019: Achieving Productive Transformation. AUC, Addis Ababa/OECD Publishing, Paris.
Ben, F. M. A., Ukwandu, E., Hindy, H., Brosset, D., Bures, M., Andonovic, I., & Bellekens, X. (2022). Cyber security in the maritime industry: A systematic survey of recent advances and future trends. Information, 13(1), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13010022
Björkroth, P. (2020). MacGyvers or human drones: What will future seafarers be like? (Agnieszka Hynnekleiv Part 1). Maritime Podcast. Retrieved from https://www.novia.fi/novialia/poddar/martime-podca st/petermbjorkroth
Boyes, H. (2015). Cybersecurity and cyber-resilient supply chains. Technology Innovation Management Review, 5(4), 28-34.
Campbell, S., Naeem, W., & Irwin, G. W. (2012). A review on improving the autonomy of unmanned surface vehicles through intelligent collision avoidance manoeuvres. Annual Reviews in Control, 36(2), 267-283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcontrol.2012.09.008
DiRenzo, J., Goward, D. A., & Roberts, F. S. (2015). The little-known challenge of maritime cybersecurity (pp. 1-5). In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Information, Intelligence, Systems and Applications, Corfu, Greece.
Emad, G. R., Khabir, M., & Shahbakhsh, M. (2020). Shipping 4.0 and training seafarers for the future autonomous and unmanned ships (pp. 1-2). In Proceedings of the 21st Marine Industries Conference, Qeshm Island, Iran.
Felski, A., & Zwolak, K. (2020). The ocean-going autonomous ship: Challenges and threats. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 8(1), 41. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse8010041
Geng, J. B., Ji, Q., Fan, Y., & Shaikh, F. (2017). Optimal LNG importation portfolio considering multiple risk factors. Journal of Cleaner Production, 151, 452-464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.053
Germond, B. (2015). The geopolitical dimension of maritime security. Marine Policy, 54, 137-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.12.013
Ghaderi, H. (2020). Wider implications of autonomous vessels for the maritime industry: Mapping the unprecedented challenges. Advances in Transport Policy and Planning, 5, 263-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.atpp.2020.05.002
Gurara, D., Klyuev, V., Mwase, N., & Presbitero, A. F. (2018). Trends and challenges in infrastructure investment in developing countries. International Development Policy, 10(1), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.4000/poldev.2802
Halgamuge, M. (2015). Radio hazard safety assessment for marine ship transmitters: Measurements using a new data collection method and comparison with ICNIRP and ARPANSA limits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(5), 5338-5354. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120505338
Hassani, V., Crasta, N., & Pascoal, A. M. (2017). Cyber security issues in navigation systems of marine vessels from a control perspective. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Ocean, Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering. Trondheim, Norway.
Haywood, R. (2011). Maritime piracy. Routledge, New York.
Hogg, T., & Ghosh, S. (2016). Autonomous merchant vessels: Examination of factors that impact the effective implementation of unmanned ships. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 8(3), 206-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/18366503.2016.1229244
Hummels, D., & Schaur, G. (2013). Time as a trade barrier. American Economic Review, 103(7), 2935-2959. https://doi.org/10.1080/10.1257/aer.103.7.2935
IMB-PRC, International Maritime Bureau Piracy Reporting Center. (1998). Piracy and armed robbery against ships. Report for the period of 1 January - 30 June, 1998, Kuala Lumpur.
IMO. (2018). IMO Takes First Steps to Address Autonomous Ships. International Maritime Organization.
Imran, F., & Kantola, J. (2018). Review of Industry 4.0 in the light of sociotechnical system theory and competence based view: A future research agenda for the evolute approach (pp. 118-128). In Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics 2018. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94709-9_12
ITU NEWS. (2018). Autonomous Shipping is Making Waves. Retrieved from https://news.itu.int/autonomous-shipping
ITU/UNESCO. (2019). Ensuring equity and inclusivity in all that we do: Data, platforms and policies. International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, Switzerland.
Jensen, L. (2015). Challenges in maritime cyber-resilience. Technology Innovation Management Review, 5(4), 35-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.22215/timreview/889
Kansake, B. A., Kaba, F. A., Dumakor-Dupey, N. K., & Arthur, C. K. (2019). The future of mining in Ghana: Are stakeholders prepared for the adoption of autonomous mining systems? Resources Policy, 63, 101411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2019.101411
Karlis, T. (2018). Maritime law issues related to the operation of unmanned autonomous cargo ships. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 17(4), 119-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13437-018-0135-6
Kessler, T., & Knoll, A. (2017). Multi vehicle trajectory coordination for automated parking (pp. 661-666). In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), Los Angeles, CA, USA.
Kim, T. E., & Schröder-Hinrichs, J. U. (2021). Research developments and debates regarding maritime autonomous surface ship (MASS): Status, challenges and perspectives (pp. 175-197). Springer, Cham.
Kim, T., Perera, L. P., Sollid, M. P., Batalden, B. M., & Sydnes, A. K. (2022). Safety challenges related to autonomous ships in mixed navigational environments. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 21, 141-159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13437-022-00277-z
Kingsland, P. (2020). Ready for the Spotlight: Emerging Ports in Africa. Retrieved from https://ship.nridigital.com/ship_jul18/ready_for_the_spotlight_emerging_ports_in_africa#
Kos, S., Brčić, D., & Pušić, D. (2013). Protection and risks of ENC data regarding safety of navigation (pp. 49-56). Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation: Advances in Marine Navigation, CRC Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/b14961-10
Kretschmann, L., Burmeister, H. C., & Jahn, C. (2017). Analyzing the economic benefit of unmanned autonomous ships: An exploratory cost-comparison between an autonomous and a conventional bulk carrier. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 25, 76-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2017.06.002
Ling, Y. M., Hamid, N. A. A., & Te Chuan, L. (2020). Is Malaysia ready for Industry 4.0? Issues and challenges in manufacturing industry. International Journal of Integrated Engineering, 12(7), 134-150. https://doi.org/10.30880/ijie.2020.12.07.016
Lisa, H. (2020). Regulatory governance in emerging technologies: The case of autonomous vehicles in Sweden and Norway. Research in Transportation Economics, 83, 100967. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.retrec.2020.100967
Man, Y., Lundha, M., Poratheb, T., & Mackinnon, S. (2015). From desk to field-human factor issues in remote monitoring and controlling of autonomous unmanned vessels. Procedia Manufacturing, 3, 2674-2681. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2015.07.635
Mooney, T. (2015). Study finds autonomous ships unlikely within next decade. The Journal of Commerce Online, New York.
Muhia, J. G., & Kuso, Y. (2019). Contribution of infrastructure to economic growth in Africa. International Journal of Business Marketing and Management, 4(4), 43-51.
Munim, Z. H., & Schramm, H. J. (2018). The impacts of port infrastructure and logistics performance on economic growth: The mediating role of seaborne trade. Journal of Shipping and Trade, 3, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41072-018-0027-0
MUNIN. (n.d). About MUNIN: Maritime Unmanned Navigation through Intelligence in Networks. Retrieved from http://www.unmanned-ship.org/munin/about
Olarreaga, M. (2016). Trade, Infrastructure, and Development. ADBI Working Paper 626.
Palei. T. (2015). Assessing the impact of infrastructure on economic growth and global competitiveness. Procedia Economics and Finance, 23,168-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00322-6
Perera, L. P., & Batalden, B. (2019). Possible COLREGs failures under digital helmsman of autonomous ships (pp. 1-7). In Proceedings of the OCEANS 2019. Marseille, France. https://doi.org/10.1109/OCEANSE.2019.8867475
Porter, M. E., & James, E. H. (2015). How smart, connected products are transforming companies. Harvard Business Review, 93(10), 96-114.
Portugal-Perez, A., & Wilson, J. S. (2012). Export performance and trade facilitation reform: Hard and soft infrastructure. World Development, 40(7), 1295-1307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.12.002
Roberts, F. S. (2019). From football to oil rigs: Risk assessment for combined cyber and physical attacks. Journal of Benefit-Cost Analysis, 10(2), 251-273. https://doi.org/10.1017/bca.2019.15
Rüßmann, M., Lorenz, M., Gerbert, P., Waldner, M., Justus, J., Engel, P., & Harnisch, M. (2015). Industry 4.0: The future of productivity and growth in manufacturing industries. Boston Consulting Group.
Sakyi, D., Bonuedi, I., & Osei, O. E. E. (2018). Trade facilitation and social welfare in Africa. Journal of African Trade, 5, 35-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joat.2018.08.001
Saxon, S., & Stone, M. (2017). Market growth: Container Shipping: The Next 50 Years (pp. 5-7). Travel, Transport & Logistics. McKinsey & Company.
Sebastian, B. (2019). Data Supporting Swifter Shipping. Retrieved from https://www.marinetraffic.com/blog/data-supporting-swifte r-shipping
Seck, A. (2016). Trade facilitation and trade participation: are sub-Saharan Africa firms different? Journal of African Trade, 3(1-2), 23-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joat.2017.05.002
Seck, A. (2017). How facilitating trade would benefit trade in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Development, 19(1), 1-26. https://doi.org/10.5325/jafrideve.19.1.0001
Shepherd, B. (2016). Infrastructure, trade facilitation and network connectivity in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Trade, 3(1-2), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joat.2017.05.001
Streng, M., & Kuipers, B. (2018). The Macro-Economic impact of autonomous shipping strategies. In Proceedings of the WCTRS, Special Interest Group 2, Antwerp, Belgium.
Svilicic, B., Brčić, D., Žuškin, S., & Kalebić, D. (2019). Raising awareness on cyber security of ECDIS. TransNav the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 13(1), 231-236. http://dx.doi.org/10.12716/1001.13.01.24
Tam, K., & Jones, K. D. (2018). Maritime cybersecurity policy: The scope and impact of evolving technology on international shipping. Journal of Cyber Policy, 3(2), 147-164. https://doi.org/10.1080/23738871.2018.1513053
Thien, D. (2019). Digital Ports Way of the Future. Retrieved from http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news/142467/digital-ports-wayof-the-future
Tsvetkova, A., Magnus, G., & Kim, W. (2021). Digitalising maritime transport: Digital innovation as a catalyser of sustainable transformation. In Montero, J., & Finger, M. (Eds.). A modern guide to the digitalization of infrastructure. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
United Nations Conference on Trade & Development. (2008). Review of Maritime Transport. UNCTAD, New York and Geneva.
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. (2013). Trade Facilitation from an African Perspective. UNECA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Urciuoli, L., & Juha, H. (2020). Can digital ecosystems mitigate risks in sea transport operations? Estimating benefits for supply chain stakeholders. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 23, 237-267. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00163-6
Vernimmen, B., Dullaert, W., & Engelen, S. (2007). Schedule unreliability in liner shipping: Origins and consequences for the hinterland supply chain. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 9, 193-213. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.mel.9100182
Wang, X., Liu, Z., & Cai, Y. (2017). The ship manoeuvrability based collision avoidance dynamic support system in closequarters situation. Ocean Engineering, 146, 486-497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2017.08.034
Waterborne, T. P. (2011). Waterborne Implementation Plan. Retrieved from http://www.waterborne-tp.org/index.php/documents.
Watson, D. P., & Scheidt, D. H. (2005). Autonomous systems (pp. 368-376). Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest.
Watson, R. T., Lind, M., & Haraldson, S. (2017). Physical and digital innovation in shipping: seeding, standardizing, and sequencing. Paper presented at the HICSS.
Wiener, N. (1950). The human use of human beings: Cybernetics and society. Houghton Mifflin.
World Bank. (2006). Independent Evaluation Group, Assessing World Bank Support for Trade, 1987-2004: An IEG Evaluation. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. (2019a). Doing business 2019: Going beyond efficiency. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. (2019b). Logistics performance index. World Bank, Washington, DC.
Wróbel, K., Montewka, J., & Kujala, P. (2017). Towards the assessment of potential impact of unmanned vessels on maritime transportation safety. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 165, 155-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2017.03.029
Yang, D., Jiang, L., & Notteboom, T. (2019). Innovative solutions for shipping market turmoil: The Search for profitability, sustainability and resilience. Transport Policy, 82, 75-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.01.007
Zhou, K., Liu, T., & Zhou, L. (2015). Industry 4.0: Towards future industrial opportunities and challenges (pp. 2147-2152). In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Fuzzy Systems and Knowledge Discovery. IEEE, Zhangjiajie, China.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Maritime Technology and Research
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
