Democratic Transition in Karen State and the Union of Myanmar in the Period of Post- Signing Ceasefire Agreement

Main Article Content

Oratai Soparat

Abstract

There have been numerous studies of democratization in the Union of Myanmar since Thien Sein’s government took office. Thein Sein ‘s reformist policy included releasing political prisoners and also announcing officially the by-election result in 2012. Moreover, The government tried to negotiate with many ethnic groups, by offering the ceasefire agreements to them, for its legitimacy and also reflecting the great step of democratic transition, it is questionable and controversial whether the ceasefire agreement really pave the way to the democracy in both union and state level, particularly in Karen state. The aims of this research are to study the outcome toward democratization in both Union level and local Karen State, after signing ceasefire agreement. The methodology of this research is to analyze from interviewing the representatives’ government and ethnic groups as a primary source and reviewing and evaluating from various kind of documents as secondary source. The implication of Protection Pact concept turned out that making ceasefires as a tool to be exploited for negotiating and sharing mutual interests of elites (of ethnic group) and government. If they could implement the agreement, the authoritarian government remained. The Sequencing Approach of democratic transition was accommodated by establishing political institutions, and holding elections for consolidating democracy. Another approach is Gradualist or Transformist, implied for promoting democratic values, such as freedom and human rights, as gradually embedded. The outcome of the study revealed that in the union level the democratic transition could be described as discipline democracy by considering the content of Constitution 2008 as allowing the military to retain in political domain, regardless the majority of the votes. After making ceasefire agreement between Myanmar and Karen ethnic group, Karen learnt the essences of democratic values, particularly human rights, and freedom as well as embedded the political institutions in the domestic societies such as Salaween Peace Park. It shades the light of the Karen culture, bounded by the rights of land management. In addition, it reflects that Karen people have their abilities to deal with the rights of self -determination, in the absence of government intervention.


 


 

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Article Details

How to Cite
Soparat, O. (2020). Democratic Transition in Karen State and the Union of Myanmar in the Period of Post- Signing Ceasefire Agreement. Journal of Social Sciences Naresuan University, 16(2), 257–301. https://doi.org/10.14456/jssnu.2020.16
Section
Research Paper

References

Akebo, M. (2017). Ceasefire agreement and peace process: A comparative study. Oxon: Routhledge.

Akebo, M. (2019). “Coexistence Ceasefire” in Mindanao. Peace and Change, 44(4), 468-496.

Badgley, J. H. (1963). Burma: The nexus of socialism and two political traditions. Asian Survey, 3(2), 89-95.

Carothers, T. (2007). How democracies emerge: The sequencing fallacy. Journal of Democracy, 18(1), 12-27.

Chambers, J. (2015, November 5). Minorities and the vote. Retrieved November 28, 2019, from https://www.newmandala.org/minorities-and-the-vote/

Chounet-Cambas, L. (2011). Mediation practices series: Negotiating ceasefires. Geneva: Center for Humanitarian Dialogue.

Chounet-Cambus, L. (2016). “Ceasefires” GSDRC professional development reading pack no.41. Birmingham, UK: University of Birmingham.

Christensen, D., Nguyen, M., & Sexton, R. (2018). Strategic violence during democratization: Evidence from Myanmar. Retrieved August 29, 2019, from https://bit.ly/3mxxIvx

Free Ranger Burma. (2018, March 15). They are running again, this time with babies: Over 1,700 villagers flee as Burma army attacks and builds roads in Northern Karen State. Retrieved November 29, 2019, from https://bit.ly/2HOVWT5

Grugel, J., & Bishop, M. L. (2014). Democratization: A critical. New York: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Guyot, J., & Badgley, J. (1990). Myanmar in 1989: Tatmadaw V. Asian Survey, 3(2), 187-195.

Heggelund, C. R. (2017). Sequencing Democracy in Myanmar: A success story? (master’s thesis). Oslo: University of Oslo Norway. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3jBeovq

Hiariej, E., & Stokke, K. (Eds.). (2017). Politics of citizenship in Indonesia. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia.

Holmes, R. A. (1967). Burmese domestic policy: The politics of burmanization. Asian Survey, 7(3), 188-197.

Huntington, S. P. (1993). The third wave: Democratization in the late Twentieth Century. Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.

International Based Groups Denied Vote at 16th Congress Election. (2017) Congress election outcome critical to how KNU progress its peace plans. Retrieved September 2, 2019, from https://bit.ly/3oEDtJJ

Janta Bombards DKBA Splinter group at Three Pagodas Pass. (2010) The Mizzima. Retrieved June 6, 2019, from https://bit.ly/31ZxRzM

Karen Human Rights Group. (2012). Pa’an Interview: Saw Ht---, March 2012. Retrieved September 6, 2019, from https://bit.ly/2HQNmDx

Kayin State Hluttaw. (n.d.). Myanmar national postal. Retrieved March 26, 2020, from https://myanmar.gov.mm/en/kayin-state-hluttaw

Keenan, P. (2012). The Karen national union negotiations 1949-2012. Chiang Mai: Burma Centre for Ethnic Studies.

Kipgen N. (2016). Democratization of Myanmar. New Delhi: Routledge.

Lin, S. T. (2017). Kayin people’s party expresses concern over peace process status quo. Retrieved 15 July, 2019, from https://bit.ly/31YBq9H

Lintner, B. (2019, March 1). Chinatowns mysteriously emerges in backwoods Myanmar. Retrieved September 6, 2019, from https://bit.ly/35LL7cx

Lipset, S. M. (1981). Political Man: The social bases of politics (expanded edition). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University.

Lolliffe, K. (2016). Ceasefires, governance and development: The Karen national union in time of change. San Francisco and California: The Asia Foundation.

Marte, N. (2013). Will democracy bring peace to myanmar?. International Studies Review, 16(2), 115-141.

Martin, M. F. (2012). U.S. sanction on Burma congressional research services for report for congress. Retrieved December 11, 2019, from https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R41336.pdf

McCarthy, S. (2000). Ten years of chaos in Myanmar: Foreign investment and economic liberalization under the SLORC-SPDC, 1988–1998. Pacific Affairs, 73(2), 233-262.

Moore, B. (1966). Social origins of dictatorship and democracy: Lord and peasant in the making of the modern world. Boston: Beacon Press.

Mydans, S. (1988, August 12). Uprising in Burma: The old regime under siege. The New York Times, Section A.p.1.

Naing, S. N. (2017, April 25). Padoh Naw Zipporah Sein “I do not think we can build peace quickly”. Retrieved from https://bit.ly/3ebaB79

O’Donnell, G. (1989). Transitions to democracy: Some navigation instruments. In R. A. Pastor (Ed.)., Democracy in the americas: Stopping the pendulum (87-104). New York and London: Holmes and Meier.

O’Donnell, G., & Schmitter, P. (1986). Transitions from Authoritarian rule: Tentative conclusions about uncertain democracies. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University.

Oo, H. (2019). Shwe Kokko formerly known as fortress kawmoora. Retrieved September 6, 2019, from https://bit.ly/3jHL7iT

Oo, Z., & Min, W. (2007). Assessing Burma‘s ceasefire accords. Washington, D.C.: East-West Center.

Pala, L. (2011). The Burmse Constitution “A discipline-flourishing democracy” is no democracy at all. Legal Journal of Burma, 38, 49-65.

Rambotham, O, Miall, H., & Woodhouse, T. (2011). Contemporary conflict resolution. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Reychler, L. (2010). Peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding. Retrieved March 26, 2020, from https://bit.ly/3oJKhpA

Rogers, B. (2004). A land without evil: Stopping the genocide of Burma’s karen paper. Michigan: Kregel Publications.

Seekins, D. M. (2006). HistoricaL dictionary of Burma (Myanmar). Lanham: Scarecrow Press.

Share, D. (1984). Transition through transaction: The politics of democratization in Spain, 1975-1977 (Doctoral dissertation). California: Stanford University.

Slater, D. (2010). Ordering power: Contentious politics and authoritarian leviathans in Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Smith, M. (1991). Burma insurgency and the politics of ethnicity. London and New Jersey: Zed Books.

Split Opens in KNU Leadership. (2012, October 5). The mezzima. Retrieved November 18, 2019, from https://bit.ly/2HOfZ4b

South, A. (2004). Political transition in Myanmar: A new model for democratization. Contemporary South East Asia, 26(2), 233-255.

Statement of Karen National Union 15 th Congress. (2012). By force of arms: Armed ethnic groups in Burma. New Delhi: Vij books India Pvt.

Stokke, K. (2018). Democratization in the global south: From democratic transitions to tranformative democratic politics. Geography Compass, 12(12), 1-15. doi: 10.1111/gec3.12412.

Stokke, K., & Törnquist, O. (Eds.). (2013). Democratization in the global south: The importance of transformative politics. Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan.

Stradiotto, G. A., & Guo, S. (2010). Transitional modes of democratization and democratic outcomes. International Journal on World Peace, 27(4), 5-40.

Than, T. M. M. (2010). Myanmar security outlook: A Taxing Year for the Tatmadaw. Retrieved December 5, 2019, from https://bit.ly/32dGl6T

Thawnghmung, A. M. (2012). The other karen in Myanmar: Ethnic minorities and the struggle without arms. Lanham: Lexington Books.

Tjosvold, D. (1991). Rights and responsibilities of dissent: Cooperative conflict. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 4(1), 13-23.

Wansai, S. (2017) UNFC possible disintegration and the peace process outlook. Retrieved March 26, 2020, from https://bit.ly/3n6HULV

Weng, L. (2019, January 7). Salween peace park to keep lands in local hands. Retrieved September 11, 2019, from https://bit.ly/34GLHsX